What Creates One’s Identity

In the book, â€Å"a complicated kindness†, written by Miriam Toews, the main character, Nomi Nickel, fights through many obstacles in her life and learns what reality is. Her characteristics and identities are built in her by the places she lives. The struggling in living without her mother and older sister has made her doing so much than what she would. The small town and her religion have a huge impact in her, where she hates the place but she learns to love it. Her dream of being free has more inspiration in her which makes her wanting to go to the outside world. After learning so much as she has to, she becomes a responsible, kind and strong young adult. When one loss something they would always get something back in reverse, by which cases the one always learns from what she has to go through. In the book, Nomi’s sister and mother’s sudden disappearance has made her handle lot things that she wouldn’t do and handle by herself if she has a full family. â€Å"It’s been three years so far. My period started the day after Trudie left which means I’ve bled thirty-six times since they’ve been gone†(Toews, 5). The quote shows us that Nomi, the main character, has to handle suffers as being a female after her mom has left her. She has to handle it without anyone’s helping. It was the responsible she learns without noticing it herself. â€Å"Doing laundry can be a really interesting thing and intriguing process. Emptying people’s pockets, noticing odours and stains and items, folding the clothes afterwards, opening drawers, putting everything away†(Toews, 35). In the process of learning, Nomi has become responsible and enjoying what she is learning to do. An individual’s past always teaches them how to be a better and kind person. When one thinks about their past over with different point of views, they would realize what they had mistaken. From the book, Nomi often have flashbacks about what she did to others, she then could find the demerit she had done. She is a Mennonite, but she hated her own religion. After she’d look back what she did and how she treated some people, she has learnt how she should treat others nicely. â€Å"My guidance counselor has suggested to me that I change my attitude about this place and learn to love it. But I do, I told her. Oh, that’s rich, she said. That’s rich† (Toews, 8). â€Å"East village has given me the faith to believe in the possibility of happy family reunion someday† (Toews, 324). The quotes tells the change in Nomi, where she becomes someone different. From hating the village to loving it was by changing in herself. One’s dream leads possibilities to the one. The courage of people do something they were afraid has to come from what she believe. Nomi, the girl who lives in a religious town with lots of rules, wants to have freedom. She has a dream of being herself. She wants to get out of the town and a new life. After her father leaves her, which he knows he has to leave first to let go of Nomi, Nomi decide to go to the outside world with no fears. â€Å"I dream of escaping into the real world. I would love t read the diary of a girl my age- a girl from the city. Or a textbook on urban planning. Or a New York City phone book. I would be killed to own a New York City phone book† (Toews, 8). â€Å"I meant to thank you Ray for, in the midst of his own multitude of crap and bewilderment, knowing one true thing. That I would never have left him and that if I were ever to get out of that town, he would have to leave first† (Toews, 322). Nomi wants to go outside so much she would do anything to have freedom, but she promises her father that she’d never leave her father alone. But after her father left, she has noting to worry about. She has the courage of going outside. She is strong. One’s identity is built in them by many factors; life struggling, past and dream. All of the factors are based on realities. Dream is a big part of reality when one believes in themselves. An individual might not realize how dream works out for their identity, but it is the most important part of building their identities.

Impact of Water Shortage on Humans and the Environment

In Sandra Posted article she explains the Impact Lack of water will have on Humans and the environment. She begins the article by stating that, â€Å"our water problem turns out to be much more worrisome than our energy problem† (Posted 1). She goes on to explain that human activity, the increase in global warming temperatures and humans altering of our natural waterways are the blame for the water problem. She gives examples of natural water disasters and she also explains that as the population grows more demand has caused global water shortages.She also talks about how water is absolutely essential for all life forms. There is no way for us to survive without water. There is absolutely no substitute for water and why we must work hard to conserve it. She explains that we can reverse the water problem. She said that energy and water are connected and that we need one to have another. Posted said there are multiple problems that the world must focus on. She said In the past d ecades we have had floods, storms, droughts, dam's breaks and famines.She points out that most Americans think these disasters only happen in faraway countries, but in fact in the last couple of years Americans have experienced floods and natural disasters. She also commented that the water challenges confronting us locally, regionally, and globally are unprecedented. She finishes up the article by explaining that if we allow dams to be taken down and natural water purifying systems to be put back Into place could help water scarcity will be self-fixing. I found Sandra Pastel's article extremely critical.She talks about the importance of shrinking our personal water footprints and that the amount of water used to produce all the things we buy Is staggering. She also explains that â€Å"the average U. S. Resident uses, directly and indirectly, about 2,480 pubic meters of water per year- about 1 ,800 gallons per day-twice the global average† (Posted 8). That statement bought ba ck memories of the water shortage some years ago. We were asked to not flush toilets, take less baths and not water our lawns.I never heard any government official or community leaders talking about building a long-term contingency plans. What I did hear was a lot talk about why we were experiencing the water shortages. The main reason given was low rain fall amounts and this was said to cause our flow into the river to be below normal. Pastel's article has made a believer out of me. I am ready to commit to doing whatever it takes to conserve water. The united States and other countries need to band together in these conservation efforts. I believe that if we educate people on water conservation.The more they will be willing to help. In my opinion. The best way right now to help with water conversation is to raise public awareness and enforce laws. A strong point in this article was the message: â€Å"Energy and water toy 2 13). I agree with Posted views on fossil fuels which can l ead to even more water being conserved. I really think that we can partner with other countries to make a lasting impact. Farmers can also make a huge impact on conserving water by using efficient irrigation equipment and weather APS.Using these APS along with irrigation systems can help save water. Farmers can also use proper soil management, water recycling and organic farming methods. Using organic farming methods will reduce the amount of water used. Sandra Pastel's article has made me more aware of our water crisis. What is the solution? In the future, residential communities will have to take into account possible water shortages. One way to do that would be to build homes that are more water efficient akin to energy efficiency. This would include low flow bathrooms and efficient lawn watering systems.In the meantime there is so much an individual can do to make a world of difference with small adjustments such as detecting leaks, visiting your local water conservation office, turn off the water while you are lathering your hands, turning off water when brushing your teeth, and upgrading older toilets. I plan to spread the word and be a water advocate with my neighbors, friends and coworkers. I will also attend local water district meetings. We have a long way to go, but a deeper appreciation of the nature of the water problem is needed.Often, the public tends to confuse the term global change with global warming and do not associate the global change with the problem of water scarcity. Global shortage of water, now is the real inconvenient truth. We must take heed and react quickly before it is too late. I believe that we can meet these challenges if we work together. Our Joint efforts will go a long way towards alleviating this growing problem. Then we must we elect politicians who takes the survival of our planet a priority, we might be able to slow down global warming and conserve water before it is to late.

Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Lab Report Example Finally the volumetric efficiency was found to be 60%. It is important to point out that the torque of the engine is dependent on the speed at which the engine turns and it is normally expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm). The curve of the power torque graph for the polo engine slopes smoothly and increases steadily as the revolutions per minute increase. The relationship of torque versus the engine is non linear. This relationship is provided as curve as shown on the torque curve. The exact shape and the height of the curve is specific for each engine type and this is normally determined by engine tests. The curve peaks at approximately 4000 rpm with a torque of about 90.3 N/M. The curves can be defined within the range of 1100-5500 rpm since that is the operating range of the polo engine. If the range is made lower than this, the engine is likely to stall while an increase would damage the engine. For energy balance to occur within the internal combustion engine, it is important that the total power generated by the brake power is kept at its peak. Energy performance is an indication of the degree at which the success of the internal combustion polo engine performs its assigned task. The total power is normally developed by the combustion of the fuel in the combustion chamber is greater than the brake power usually referred to as indicated power. This can be calculated as: The balance of the energy in the internal combustion engine will indicate that approximately 1/3 of the fuel energy that has been input is normally lost to the external environment through transfer of heat. There is also another 1/3 is available as the shaft performs its work. The heat losses must be decreased in order to improve the efficiency of the engine. 3. Exhaust smoke and other emissions: The oxides of nitrogen and any unburned carbons are an indication of the rate of efficiency of the engine. This parameter can be used

Mergers and Acquisitions Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Mergers and Acquisitions - Case Study Example The paper also deals with the resultant economies and advantages accruing out of the merger by studying the case of acquisition of another company by Hon Hai (Faxcom). While 'business strategy' represent the goal of the company to attain sustainable competitive advantage in one of the businesses of the company, 'corporate strategy' represents the objective of the company to manage multi-business activities to create corporate-wide advantage that will benefit each of the business the company owns and operates. The corporate strategy looks into the opportunities available to the company both internally and externally to enhance its competitive strengths and sustain its sales growth and profitability. A strategic analysis of any company thus includes assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the company based on the internal environment as well as threats and opportunities that the company is subjected to because of its relative positioning in the market and the industry. The main objective of any strategic analysis is to identify the ways in which the existing resources can be shared between the multiple business activities and identifying new resou rces, which will enhance the competitive strengths of the company. This may include the opportunities for mergers and acquisitions, which will provide the combined synergies and scale economies to the company for enhancing its competitive edge. Corporate mergers and acquisitions (M&A) have long received considerable attention from the corporate world, the investing public as well as the academicians and scholars. According to Thompson Financial Reports for the year 2005, the worldwide M&A deals was estimated at US $ 2.7 Trillion which has posted an increase of 38.4 percent from the total volume of US $ 2 Trillion for the year 2004. Cogut and Rodgers (2006) report that the increase in the Asian deals for the year 2005 increased by 64 percent over the last year and the dollar value was US $ 280 million for the period in the form of announced deals. A number of corporations in the international market have been

Interview in Cyberlaw Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interview in Cyberlaw - Assignment Example Adult 2: Am not happy with such sites since they do give some private information about a person which can sometimes create scandals in their lives. Also, one cannot control the information such sites are giving unless by use of law and this may cost one a lot of money and time. Adult 1: Yes the Federal Government should implement laws dealing on the way companies use ones personal information. For example, it should limit the company’s rights on posting their employee’s credit card information, family members’ information as well as social security number. Adult 2: The federal government should implement such laws as by doing so companies will have to consult their employees before posting some personal information. For instance, the government should include that a company should not to post any personal information regarding an employee’s financial status. Adult 2: I think the company should be the one held responsible. Let’s say the information given about any person contradicts the law, the organisation posting the information is the one that should be held responsible and not the individual. This should serve as a way of restricting the information that companies post concerning their employees. I would advice employees to be very careful when giving their personal information to the employer as they can find the information at any time in the

World History Before 1500 Chapter 5 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

World History Before 1500 Chapter 5 - Assignment Example Other elements include important civilization tools like introduction of writing. The resurgent Greek civilization was characterized by population growth, the rice of metallurgy technology and development of intensive and extensive agriculture. The Greek civilization was defined by acquisition of knowledge and they relied on agriculture for sustenance while the Phoenician civilization was developed through trade. They were mighty traders and dominated the sea trade for approximately 3000 years. They Phoenician civilization brought Asian culture into the Europe through trade that affected Greece and the whole Mediterranean immensely (FernaÃŒ ndez 107). The main developments occurred in the area of medicine and artistry such as metallurgy and music. They developed in agriculture by use of metallic tools and fertilizer; they became masters in the areas of mathematics, astrology, geography, physics and astronomy. The Chinese at the time of Zhou dynasty develop writing as well (FernaÃŒ ndez 105). The Aryans: were warrior people, inhabited the Ganges valley. They did not develop writing as earlier as the Chinese did. They had little interest in painting and sculpture, neither did they engage in trade, but they mainly practiced agriculture. Technology spurred major changes in the Americas and sub- Saharan Africa since it helped boost production in agriculture through use of machines to prepare farmland, use of fertilizer and irrigation. It also encouraged the trade of agricultural produce by simplifying transportation to other regions (FernaÃŒ ndez 92). The links that existed between sub-Saharan Africa and Asia based on trade: they engaged in batter trade especially on agricultural produce. Cultural transmission in Americas and Africa lacked vast climatic chasms from south to north and north to south, which called for different strategies for trade. Monsoonal wind system of maritime Asia and stable Mediterranean weather favored

Find three logical fallacies from the article Essay

Find three logical fallacies from the article - Essay Example The post hoc fallacy claims that ‘after this therefore because of this’. Two events simply following a sequential pattern is not sufficient to prove that the second event took place because of the first one. They are mere coincidences. It is necessary to conduct a controlled study that rules out all other factors that might influence the outcome to establish a casual connection between the events that took place in sequence. However, in the present case, this study does not take place. Straw man fallacy One fallacy that is evident in the article is straw man fallacy. In fact, Straw Man fallacy is the outcome when a person plainly ignores another person’s actual position, and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version of that position. In the given article, Lott claims that there were many armed attacks in the US when there was ban on carrying guns, and he claims that they might be preventable if the law allowing the public to carry concealed gu ns was enacted. The point that the attacks were not prevented is replaced by Lott with the point that they could be prevented if people had guns. Thus, he justifies his claim that people should be allowed to carry guns.

Defining Public Relations Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Defining Public Relations Paper - Essay Example i. It is a managerial function that focuses on researching, communicating, interacting and establishing close relations with varied stakeholders of an organization in an ethical manner (Corbett). Mainly, this entails establishing an ample environment where all the stakeholders will benefit mutually through relations that they have constituted and achieve specific results. 2. It is a management function whose mandate encompasses evaluating public attitudes, identifying policies and methods either by an individual or corporation intended to safeguard public’s interest. This is to implement an already predetermined action aimed at earning both understanding and acceptance (Narasimha 4). 3. It is both an art and science that focuses on analyzing trends, forecasting their results and advising corporation managers before implementing predetermined programs of action that will safeguard both interests of the public and the corporation (Newsom & Haynes 4). Therefore, this implies the term despite having varied definitions, their implications are the same except the wording from one person’s perspective to another. However, there are some definitions that attach extra essence to public’s interests and the relationships in an organization that would lead to a good reputation evident in definitions 2 and 3. This is contrary to the definition 1 whose emphasis encompasses communication and understanding in an organization besides ensuring healthy relationship with the public. I think one of the reasons that have contributed to the emergency of numerous definitions of â€Å"Public relations† is due to the perception, which the mass media has created in the people’s minds Joosuk & Candace 319). This is especially in the mode of reporting whereby for the past decades, media has utilized the term in relation to negative connotations especially when expounding varied interactions between the society and the corporation

Employee and Customer satisfaction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Employee and Customer satisfaction - Assignment Example In real sense, within the government, satisfied workers are individuals who the government could do better without them. Satisfaction of employees does cover the basic needs as well as concerns of employees. It happens to be a good point to start at, however, it typically stops short of what matters really (Susan, 2015). Inefficient HR department which does not place a right employee to do the right job as well as tracking the employees’ individual performance makes employees dissatisfied. The executives in HR department need to listen to the views of the department’s employees (MBA Lectures, 2011). Work pressure in the HR department could cause employee dissatisfaction. When the HR bosses mask the HR employees to finish many tasks within a stipulated time, it brings about work pressure on HR workers. The employees will develop some sort of aversion to the work (Rose, 2015). Employee educational background- where an employee lands on a job of distinct profession from his training then the employee will have to be dissatisfied with the work. This happens to be quite natural since the worker will not be able to match his/her preference for such job kind (MBA Lectures, 2011). Work politics within the HR department- as well as inability for an employee to fit in an office environment will definitely lead to dissatisfaction. It leads to reduced efficiency as well as productivity of an employee. Reduced salaries within an HR department will definitely make HR employees dissatisfied with their jobs. HR employees feel like they should be paid a suitable price for services they undertake. No one is willing to work for a trifling amount (MBA Lectures, 2011). Organization- when employees are dissatisfied their performance go down. This happens be a big blow to the organization in the sense low productivity leads to less profits as well as poor public welfare, not forgetting that these are the main goals for an

HR info system Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HR info system - Assignment Example Some of the benefits include improving management skills, whereby the Human Resource Manager can use technology to evaluate employee performance. Different people can easily get access to their work schedules using online services. However, technology can influence people negatively thus affecting their performance especially when there is poor communication (Lee, 2008). 2) This week, lets explore the web to learn more about employee development. Take a look at the follow two links, the first is an article about employment development and the second is an application specializing in employee development: Strengthen Your Business by Developing Your Employees The Halogen Software is a talent based management system meant to improve worker performance within an organization (Halogen Software Inc., 2014). It mainly reinforces worker performance by providing an organization with talent developing schedules, comprising of hiring, execution management process, acquiring new skills and training, succession development or payment. The business’s inventions include appraisal that handle performance response and differentiation, assess abilities, create execution appraisals and progressive techniques, direct goals and intentions, and maintain staffs talent reports. The software has the e360 Multirater, which manages feedback of implementation, as well as performance of workers (Halogen Software Inc., 2014). Finally, the software entails online learning manager that incorporates training and performance within an organization. There are two main types of training development process that employees use within their organization, which are in job training and out of job training (Lee, 2008). They are usually achieved by providing an environment that facilitates proper learning and training tracked by management software within an organization like the Halogen Software that has several components described above, and can

Who was responsible for the origins of the Cold War Essay Example for Free

Who was responsible for the origins of the Cold War Essay The breakup of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) brought an end to the Cold War with victory for the capitalist countries principally United States. The Cold War did not involve direct confrontation between the two rivals, Soviet Union and United States, and it has always been difficult to claim who was really responsible for setting up the Cold War in motion. Historians on both sides have blamed the other side for starting the Cold War reflecting the antagonisms on both sides. Now that the Cold War has been declared over, we can perhaps look dispassionately on who was responsible for the origin of the Civil War. From a historical perspective the question, who was responsible for the origin of the Cold War is important for historical accuracy. As [MacDonald, 1995] points out that historical accounts and their relative plausibility directly influence social science theories and helps us learn from historical examples and utilize them as illustration and evidence. These questions are the subject of this essay to find who started the Cold War. My thesis is that: 1. The conflicting ideologies of Anglo-American Capitalism and Soviet Communism were the most important cause of the Cold War 2. United States and its Western European Allies were the originator of the Cold War and 3. USSR was forced to match the US measures and to build its own sphere of influence to counter-balance those measures to protect Soviet Union. The theses seems to be biased in favor of Soviet Union but when we analyze the relationship between pre-war Russia and United States and Britain we find that the 2nd World War only brought Russia and United States into an alliance to counter the common enemy, Germany. The lessons Russia learnt from the 2nd World War, with more than 20 million deaths can logically be expected to result in a desire to secure its borders by having friendly countries as buffers. After the end of the 2nd World War the Soviet Union was in no position to enter into competition with United States that had come out of the War relatively unscathed. The development of post War era indicate that the responsibility of originating the Cold War can be put on the shoulders of United States and Britain. The mistakes and misunderstanding generated by both sides only intensified the Cold War that kept the entire World divided into the two camps and has left problems in its wake that are haunting various regions of the world to this day. Economic and strategic rivalries often create disagreement even among allies but the ideological philosophies of both sides Soviet Communism on one side and Anglo-American Capitalism on the other, and the determination on both sides to ensure that their ideologies were protected and flourished only intensified the Cold War. United States and Britain were strong advocates of capitalistic, free-trading liberal democracy and many advocated turning the whole world into their form of capitalist economies. The Soviet Union policy makers also dreamed of seeing Marxist-Leninism spread throughout the world. After the destruction of the 2nd World War, with their economy and infrastructure devastated and more than 20 million dead, Soviet Union would have been more than happy to protect communism at home and was not in a position to export it. United States however was still strong and had come out of the War even stronger, and was in a position to strengthen its sphere of influence. The responsibility of originating the Cold War thus fell in the lap of United States and Britain and Soviet Union was not much far behind as discussed below. It is also important to recognize that due to the vast differences in the operating systems of the Soviet Union and United States, the Cold War was inevitable and tracing its origin to prevent a future Cold War is not the lesson we can possibly learn from the history. Even the end of the Cold War has not meant peace and tranquility for the world, and it seems that until one power can have total supremacy with subjugation to the desire of the almighty superpower, wars of one kind or other will continue.

Can the Tax Industry Be Self-regulated?

Can the Tax Industry Be Self-regulated? Tax Summative:Â  Critically discuss the assertion that the tax industry cannot be trusted to regulate itself. Introduction, how is UK Tax Industry regulated? HMRC What ways have HMRC been successful? PwC scandal FOR Assertion Ethics Final Opinion It is well known that tax advisory work within the UK is a legally unregulated profession, therefore in order to uphold high standards, the profession depends heavily upon self-regulation by the professional bodies. It is understood that the accounting profession is more prevalent than the legal profession within the market for large business tax advice in the UK. The efficacious tax advisory role of accountants in the UK may, to a certain extent, be explained by the sound working relationships that conventionally exist between the accountancy firms and HMRC, the UK tax authority. It can be argued that that strong relationships with the UK tax authority have corroborated the advising position of the UK accountancy profession. The direct regulations of the tax advisory profession in the UK include a professional code of conduct that warrants professional conduct by incorporating aspects such as due care, integrity, confidentiality and objectivity, tax advisers who are affiliates of the CIOT (Chartered Institute of Taxation), ATT (Association of Taxation Technicians), or accountancy professional bodies are under obligation to follow this code. Consequently, affiliates who disregard the professional code may be scrutinised by the Taxation Disciplinary Board, which is an independent body established in 2001 by the CIOT and ATT. In addition, a percentage of tax advisers are bound by supplementary codes, for instance member firms of KPMG International practice a Global Code of Conduct which discloses the internal governance affairs of all KPMG firms. As a result of the investigations lead by the US Department of Justice into the US member firm of KPMG International with regard to the trade of tax shelters in th e US between 1996 and 2002, KPMG UK (as of 2004) now apply the UK Principles of Tax Advice which summarises the governance operations of KPMG UK in relation to taxation. The unfavourable perception of the UK tax advisory profession has encouraged the implementation of professional codes by the UK tax advisory bodies that highlight a high level of societal accountability of the tax profession, going past perceptions that stick to the definition of the law. Alongside direct regulations of the tax industry, indirect regulations of the tax advisory profession in the UK also exist. In spite of heated discussions in recent years, the UK Government has abstained from putting into effect legislation that would directly regulate the tax industry. However, UK policymakers have acknowledged tax avoidance schemes by introducing new legislation. Rules regarding the Disclosure of Tax Avoidance Schemes, or more commonly referred to as DOTAS, introduced new reporting obligations for both taxpayers as well as their advisors commencing from 2004. In addition, following detailed examination, the General Anti-Abuse Rule (GAAR) was implemented, in hopes of confronting abusive tax avoidance, the effects of which are yet to be seen as the legislation was only introduced in 2013. Consequential to the investigations led by the Public Accounts Committee (PAC), a select committee of the British House of Commons, the success and usefulness of the tax industry being able to regulate itself has become an area of intense political dispute in the UK. The investigations were triggered by the leak of almost 28,000 documents, evidencing the involvement of over 1,000 business, demonstrated the promotion of Luxembourg-based tax-avoidance schemes by PwC. Margaret Hodge, Chairman of the PAC, deemed the actions of PwC to be the promotion of tax avoidance on an industrial scale and called for the UK Government to take the initiative to have a more active role regarding the regulation of the tax industry as it evidently cannot be trusted to regulate itself. Members of Parliament demanded that the Government present a code of conduct for all tax advisers and proposed that submission to this code would govern whether or not companies delivering this service can attain both gover nment and public sector jobs (House of Commons Public Accounts Committee 2013). In addition to this, the Public Accounts Committee demanded that the professional bodies take on a greater lead and be more accountable for their actions with regard to tax avoidance. It is apparent that tax advisers play a very large part of the global issue of tax dodging, the effect being that it costs developing countries billions of pounds annually. The Public Accounts Committees 2013 report underlined the role that the Big 4 accounting firms play in tax avoidance as they generate billions of pounds a year as income from tax planning business in the UK alone, cash generated from worldwide clients is vastly greater. Tax Research UK director Richard Murphy claimed that accountancy firms are essentially the back-bone of the tax avoidance industry and that the act of tax avoidance would not be able to happen without accountancy firms as they are the key suppliers of tax avoidance practices. The PAC now have reason to believe that large accounting firms have been advising their clients of different and more complex forms of tax avoidance, such as developing intricate business operating models that are not limited to a certain group of countries, which impose on the lowest international rates of taxation. In contempt of the evidence submitted by PwC negating the allegations, the PAC concluded that the tax schemes displayed all the characteristics of a mass-marketed tax avoidance scheme. However, there is still cause to debate whether PwC had genuinely done anything wrong other than legally reduce the tax liabilities of its clients. It is important to distinguish the difference between tax avoidance which involves planning affairs within the given framework of the tax legislation in an attempt to reduce tax liabilities, and tax evasion which involves refusing to pay tax liabilities by suppressing knowledge or information from HMRC, or by providing dishonest information. Following the 10 year marker since HMRC was established from the merger of Inland Revenue and HM Customs and Excise, the ruling on the expanded divisions relative success or failure credibly lies somewhere in between. The merger to create HMRC was intended to improve customer service, coordinate strategies and construct efficiencies through economies of scale. We can conclude that the latter point has clearly been a success, however the former point disputably less so. References http://economia.icaew.com/news/february-2015/pac-tax-industry-cannot-be-trusted-to-self-regulate https://www.ft.com/content/d6eaba36-ad46-11e4-a5c1-00144feab7de https://www.marketingweek.com/2009/06/23/if-the-industry-cant-regulate-itself-then-the-government-will-step-in/ https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/public-accounts-committee/news/report-tax-avoidance-the-role-of-large-accountancy-firms-follow-up/ http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/regulation.html https://www.icsa.org.uk/knowledge/governance-and-compliance/features/june-2015-blurred-lines http://www.taxresearch.org.uk/Blog/2015/02/06/pwc-proves-time-to-end-tax-abuse-by-big-firms-of-accountants-has-arrived/ D. de Widt, E. Mulligan, L. Oats Regulating Tax Advisers, FairTax WP-Series No.6, 2016 Global Warming: Cause and Mitigation Global Warming: Cause and Mitigation Is our atmosphere being compromised from extreme utilization of diverse chemicals? This is the query that has been the position for foremost debate for several years, is human activities causing global warming? When debating in relation to global warming the prime thing to construe is what the foundation of global warming is, and the retort to this plain question is gases of greenhouse. Greenhouse gases are ordinary gases for instance Nitrous Oxide, CO2, or Methane and are produced in one modes or further ways. The preliminary way is, in the course of natural cycles, for illustration, CO2 is released in the course of plant process of photosynthesis or through animal respiration. The substitute greenhouse production of gas approaches from man’s employ of diverse products and fuels; this can direct to anthropogenic changes of climate. Changes of Anthropogenic Climate are conversions in the atmosphere owing to the various activities carried out by humans, and there are realities that these sorts of changes are all over the world. By researching the size of the ice caps of polar we can formulate out that they are constricting and this could be owing to a warmer heat of atmosphere due to the anthropogenic changes in climate. An IPCC details from 2007 signifying levels of a few of the gases of greenhouse additionally exhibits that the greenhouse gases levels in the atmosphere of earth’s has been increasing ever since the time of post-industrial, this can purely be features to human made machines which has been on rising. Diverse behaviors of human being activities are contributing to the rise in temperature of earth. Greenhouse gases are naturally occurring gasses that absorb heats which directly advanced by the sun rays and recoil of to the surface of earth; it’s not that these gases are atrocious in character, we in actuality depend on them to keep up our earth’s typical weather at a sustainable high temperature, which in matter of fact are purely constructive for our surroundings in moderation. The gases for illustration Carbon dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, and Methane in environment are expelled throughout means of inhalation, volcanic action, photosynthesis, and decomposition. They are in addition controlled by nature in succession to keep up these gases in safe restraint, for illustration, plants absorb carbon dioxide to run their cycles of force, this takes away from what is contemporary and composures the balances. During the industrial revolution when human being started carrying out various activities of production they started burning variety of substances for illustration petroleum and coal which have rocketed carbon dioxide levels released through the process of burning and combustion. When carbon dioxide was discharge in atmosphere a little section of what is set free is reabsorbed by natural entity, the respite of it continues lingering in the air. In point of fact, as per to the EPA statements on CO2 found just about 85% of the entire emissions of human greenhouse gas, this can be massive confirmation to sustain that anthropogenic changes in climate are in point sourcing global warming. The matter of global warming is just an inference, an idea, mostly unlock for debate, which is expressly spread out. As for my view on the topic, I expect global warming in point of fact is having an impact on our world. Acid rain is a good quality theme to glance at to uphold my belief, the rain pH levels possibly will not ever be an idyllic 7 owing to natural greenhouse gases, nevertheless they ought to not be at a level that would impair our atmosphere. The New York Times has constructed articles on how acid rain is influencing the Rockies and also national parks, I don’t perceive any additional source for this than a fast raise in pollutants. Other reasons for my worry are the apparent raise in force of tropical storms that have influenced our states and the news of so several tornadoes which can be source by friction of heat in the air. In view of the fact that we have released so much greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and sourced anthropogenic changes of climate, we h ave added to the heat that generates storms like these. I as well suppose in human advancement, consequently if we are going away to carry on moving forward like this, it is our accountability to place policies into play to conserve our welfare as well as our planets’. A number of mitigations have been fetched forth to determine issues for instance melting polar ice caps and acid rain, all sourced by global warming. One of these policies is recognized as Coal taxing, coal taxing is the idea of adding up a tax to our natural resources that are regularly utilized by industries and companies. The sum of tax that is appended on to the fuel sale would all rely on how much fuel emission would add on to the atmosphere when utilized. This idea was proffered in hopes to acquire companies who are endeavoring to be cost cognizant to do one of two things, either decline their operation of these fuels, which successively decreases the releases that they create, or obtain them to discover additional options to acquire energy. One such substitute is the wind mills application to take advantage of wind power which is in actuality extra cost efficient and atmosphere friendly, as a result why wind power might be on the rise. An additional possibility to restrict global warming is to control and capture carbon that is discharged into the air; this would more or less effort like when plant confines carbon for their cycles of energy. This idea might be effectual owing to the reality that it might considerably lesser levels of CO2 which are one of the utmost discharges in our atmosphere. On the other hand, it might be expensive to acquire the means and room to detain and store up the carbon. If I were to decide, I would state coal taxing appears the majority promising for two diverse reasons; not simply does this thought perhaps lesser our emissions, however it might as well motivate us to initiate into fresh forms of energy bringing on additional development for us in places we didn’t suppose to look, all the while being not as much of harmful to us. Whether you suppose in global warming, or you estimate it’s a myth there is large quantity of engaging things to reckon when analyzing at this topic. Are anthropogenic climate changes excruciating our ecosystem? What might be the effect of these changes in climate? Or not even is or energy habit destructive to us, other than are they outdated, and must we initiate discovering additional advancements? All of these can construct the mind to doubt and might even fetch global warming. References Anthropogenic Climate Change, [2013] retrieved from: http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/anthropogenic-climate-change.html Climate Change Indicators in the United States, [06.21.2013], retrieved from : http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/ghg/ Overview of Greenhouse Gases, [06.21.2013], retrieved from: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.html Iver Peterson, [1985,] Acid Rain Starting to have an effect on Politics and Environment in West retrieved from : New York times press 30.03.1985

Spasticity Following Stroke: a Literature Review

Spasticity Following Stroke: a Literature Review ABBREVIATIONS UMN: UPPER MOTOR NEURON SPASM: SUPPORT PROGRAMME FOR ASSEMBLY OF DATABASE FOR SPASTICITY MEASUREMENT CNS: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PMS: PASSIVE MUSCLE STRETCHING TS: TRICEPS SURAE TA: TIBIALIS ANTERIOR ROM: RANGE OF MOTION INTRODUCTION: Spasticity is a major disabling symptom that most commonly arises after stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, some traumatic brain injuries and other central nervous system (CNS) lesion (Dietz and Sinkjaer 2007). Lesion of the cortico-fugal pathway along with the pyramidal tracts, at any level, like cortex, brainstem, internal capsule or spinal cord results in spasticity (Carr et al. 1995). The term spasticity was derived from the Greek word ‘spasticus’ meaning ‘to pull or to tug’ (Ghai et al. 2013). The definition of spasticity that has been formerly cited is that of Lance in 1980: ‘Spasticity is motor disorder characterised by a velocity dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes (muscle tone) with exaggerated tendon jerks, resulting from hyper-excitability of the stretch reflex, as one component of the upper motor neurone (UMN) syndrome.’(Brown 1994). Though this definition is useful for diagnosis, yet for the purpose of understan ding and managing the effects of inappropriate muscle actions after stroke, it is too restrictive (Bhakta 2000). Recently SPASM (Support Programme for Assembly of database for Spasticity Measurement) redefined spasticity as â€Å"disordered sensori-motor control, resulting from an UMN lesion, presenting as intermittent or sustained involuntary activation of muscles† (Mirbagheri et al. 2009). For the purpose of study the clinicians have divided the UMN syndrome into ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ effects. The characteristics of the negative features are loss of dexterity, weakness and easy fatigability on the other hand spasticity, increased tendon reflexes, extensor and flexor spasm, clonus etc are the features of positive UMN syndrome. The later definition of spasticity includes all the characteristics of positive UMN syndrome excluding its negative features and the biomechanical changes in the joints and soft tissues (Mirbagheri et al. 2009). The negati ve features of UMN syndrome are regarded to be more disabling than the positive features (Carr et al. 1995) but recent studies have showed that spasticity adds on to the impairment of function and to limitation of activity for the affected person (Bovend’Eerdt et al. 2008). The core feature of spasticity is increase in stretch reflex, manifested as hypertonus. Muscle tone is defined as the tension of a muscle due to involuntary contractions of its motor units; it is determined both by the passive elasticity of muscular tissues, the viscoelastic properties of the fibrillary proteins contained within each muscle fibre and by the active (though not continuous) contraction of muscle in response to the reaction of the nervous system (Grabowski and Tortora, 2003). Alternately active and inactive motor units help in maintaining normal tone in a muscle. Any imbalance in the input from central motor pathways like the cortico-reticulo-spinal and other descending pathways to the inter-neuronal circuit of spinal cord results in alteration in the involuntary contraction in a muscle. The main tract restricting the spinal reflex activity is the dorsal reticulospinal tract that runs along the lateral spino thalamic tract. It arises from the ventero medial reticular for mation which has less facilitatorty control over the cortical motor areas, thereby augmenting the inhibitory drive. The main excitatory pathway also arising in the brainstem is the medial reticulo spinal tract. Damage to these tracts give rise to a net loss of inhibitory control leading to increased alpha motor neurone excitability at the segmental cord level and subsequent increase in muscle tone. Several studies also claim that peripheral neural changes also contribute to the increased muscle tone. Muscle tone has two components, neural involving CNS and musculoskeletal, where muscles are involved (Barnes, M. P. et al. 2003). Both the components help in maintaining normal muscle tone. Normal tone is the slight amount of constant tension in the healthy muscles offering small resistance to displacement (Barnes, Michael P. and Johnson 2008). There is change in mechanical, visco-elastic properties of muscle fibres as a result of paresis and immobilisation after an UMN lesion. Activation of actin and myosin cross bridges also increases muscle tone (Lee et al, 2005). CNS and neural pathways maintain tone by overlapping actin and myosin filaments on muscle contraction. Insufficient contraction results in decreased muscle tone due to insufficient development of tension (Grabowski and Tortora 2003). Through the phasic and tonic stretch reflexes the muscle spindle plays an important role in regulating the muscle tone (Cameron-Tucker 1983). These muscle spindles can be adjusted in terms of their response to stretching. Spasticity is generated due to the over activity of the alpha motor neurons. Over activity occurs when the monosynaptic input via Ia afferent fibres and polysynaptic afferent input via the Golgi tendon organs and cutaneous receptors loose descending inhibition from the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia, which is relayed through the dorsal and medial reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts. Spinal inter-neurons are responsible for presynaptic and reciprocal inhibition of Ia fibres. Due to the loss of this inhibition inappropriate muscle co-contraction occur disabling voluntary limb movement (Bhakta 2000). The course of development of both cerebral and spinal spasticity after an insult is slow in humans, except for the cases of high brain stem lesion like traumatic brain injury where the increase in the tone is immediate (Carr et al. 1995). The time gap between the injury and appearance of spasticity may vary from days to months, depending upon the level of lesion (Ghai et al. 2013). The effect of spasticity ranges from mild muscle stiffness to severe, very painful and uncontrollable muscle spasm. If left untreated spasticity gives rise to many problems like pain, spasm, contracture and deformity leading to a loss of mobility and dexterity, problem in self hygiene, inability to wear orthotics hence resulting in decreased functioning, participation and low self esteem (Ghai et al. 2013). A multidisciplinary approach is required for the effective management of spasticity taking into consideration other variables that might affect treatment outcome. Aim of treatment should include prevention of abnormal limb or trunk posture and facilitation of movement in the context of functional activities (Bhakta 2000). Secondary to the neural changes there are dramatic changes of the structural and mechanical properties of the spastic muscle. A review conducted by Jared et al. concluded that the following changes occur in a spastic muscle: a) alteration of the size of muscle fibre and the type of fibre distribution; b) morphologically and biomechanically measured there is proliferation of extracellular matrix material; c) increased stiffness in the spastic cell muscle; d) compared to the normal muscle there is inferior mechanical properties of extra cellular matrix in the spastic muscle (Foran et al. 2005). As a management of spasticity the researchers have tried to alter the motor neuron excitability by many interventions like electrical stimulation (Bajd et al. 1985), pressure (Leone and Kukulka 1988), muscle tapping (Belanger et al. 1989), vibration (Gillies et al. 1969), cooling (Bell and Lehmann 1987), massage (Sullivan et al. 1991) and stretch (Kunkel et al. 1993, Avela et al. 1999). Among all of these, stretching has been intensively used as it is safe, economical and convenient (Tsai, KUEN-HORNG et al. 2001). Stretching is the process of applying tension to the soft tissue structures like muscle, tendon, and vascular, dermal, connective, neural tissues for elongation. Stretching can be applied mechanically (example- with dynamometer or an intelligent feedback control device) offering well controlled intervention and manually, which is difficult to standardise but represents clinical practice better. Stretching changes the viscoelastic, structural and excitatory property of the muscle. (Nielsen et al. 2007). However many neural as well as non neural property of stretching remains unclear. Stretching aims on decreasing muscle tone, maintain or increase soft tissue extensibility leading to improvement in function (Barnes, Michael P. and Johnson 2008). Lots of variation can be done while implementing stretching as an intervention. The amount of tension, the duration of the stretch, the velocity of stretch, the number of repetition can all be varied. LITERATURE REVIEW: A study was done by Harvey et al. in the year 2000 on the â€Å"Effects Of Four Weeks Of Daily Stretching On Ankle Mobility In Patients With Spinal Cord Injuries†. 14 recently injured subjects with paraplegia and quadriplegia were taken from two spinal injury units in Sydney, Australia. Their ankle was stretched into dorsiflexion, continuously for 30 minutes with a torque of 7.5 Nm for every weekday, for 4 consecutive weeks. The main outcome measure was measuring the torque angle in knee flexed and extended position. Measurements were taken pre-test and post test. Post test measurements were also taken thrice I,e, during the study (2nd week), just after the study (4th week) and one week after the study (5th week). Intervention was given by a custom made stretching device that is able to give ankle stretch. The baselines of all the subjects were same. The result showed that even after stretching for a longer time than usual there was no significant difference in the post test value in any of the three parameters from pre test. Hence the study concluded that there is no significant change in ankle mobility after 30 minutes of stretching for 4 weeks in SCI patients. The strength of the study is good, with random allocation, blinding of assessor, similar baseline of all the subjects but the intervention device needed to be more standardised. The study has a score of 8 on PEDro scale of assessment. A study by Tsai et al. 2001 examined the effect of a single session of prolonged muscle stretch (PMS) on the spastic muscle. 17 spastic hemiplegic patients were selected for the study and as an intervention PMS was given on the triceps surae (TS) muscles by standing on the tilt table with feet dorsiflexed for 30 minutes. Here the outcome measures were Modified Ashworth scale of the TS, the H/M ratio of TS and the F/M ratio of tibialis anterior (TA) and passive range of motion (ROM) of ankle dorsiflexion,. The measurements were taken pre test, post test and 45 minutes after the test. ROM was measured with a goniometer and electromiograph was used to perform nerve stimulation and reflex recording. The results showed non-significant difference in the Modified Ashworth scale, significant change in the ROM of ankle dorsiflexion, F/M ratio and H/M ratio. There was increase in the passive ROM of the ankle dorsiflexion post treatment compared to pre treatment, additionally PMS reduced motor neuron excitability of the TS and increased that of TA in the post treatment. There was no significant difference of result with in immediate post test and 45 minutes after post test. The study was well written but the sample size was too small. The age of the effected patients varied from 33 till 79 years which is a very wide range and the acuteness of the patients varied from 4.5 months post attack to 79.6 months post attack. These factors may cause a problem while generalising the results and the amount of stiffness may vary with the duration of illness. Bressel and McNair (2002) did a study to compare prolonged static stretch with cyclic stretching on ankle joint stiffness, torque relaxation and gait in stroke patients. 10 community dwelling people were randomly allocated into two groups; one of the groups received single session of static stretch and the other cyclic stretch of the calf muscle for 30 minutes. There was a washout period for one week and then the group interventions were exchanged. The interventions were given by an isokinetic dynamometer that measured the torques and the angles also. Before and after treatment the time taken to walk 10 m was taken and stiffness of the ankle joint was calculated from the slope of the torque and angle curves before and immediately after the treatments. Over the 30 minutes stretch the percentage of the decrease in peak passive torque was the torque relaxation achieved. Results showed that there was significant decrease in ankle stiffness in both the intervention but there was not much significant difference between the post test values of the two interventions. The amount of torque relaxation was 53% greater in static stretching than that of cyclic stretching. And the 10 m walk duration did not have any significant difference pre and post test. The sample size of the study was very small to generalise the results and the wash over period between the two sessions were of just one week. Since the prolonged effect of the stretching is unknown hence it can’t be commented that whether there was any residual effect of the previous session that may have affected the results of the second session. Nowhere in the study blinding was done hence there may be a chance of being bias from the assessor. The baselines of both the groups were not similar. A study by Yeh et al. (2005) compared the effectiveness of constant-torque prolonged muscle stretching (PMS) treatment in subjects with ankle hypertonia. The study design was a pre and post test analysis. 30 subjects suffering from hemiplegia and calf muscle hypertonia were given stretching device using a motor driven stretching device for 30 minutes in constant torque or constant angle mode. The main outcome measures were Modified Ashworth scale, passive range of motion and viscoelastic property of the planter flexors were measured pre and post treatment. Result showed significant improvement in all the measures, but the in the viscoelastic component the constant torque showed more evident changes compared to the constant angle measure. This study proved that there is significant reduction in spasticity after a single session of PMS. The methodology of the study was appropriate and the analysis of the data leading to the result was done well. the study also mention about the future scope of study by changing the mode of stretch from constant to intermittent. Neither the subjects, nor the assessor was blinded in the study, so the question of bias remains. A systemic review done by Bovend’Eerdt et al. (2008) was the first review done on the effects of stretching in spasticity. Studies were taken from databases like Medline, Cochrane library, CINHAL, Web of Science, PEDro and Alied and Complementary medicine for review. 10 RCTs and 11 clinical trials were assessed. Randomised control trails were assessed on PEDro scale for methodologic quality and the other clinical trials were assessed using data extraction form containing 13 items from CASP guidelines and CONSORT statement. The methodological qualities of the RCTs were low and there was a huge diversity on the methodology, intervention, population etc. Both manual and mechanical stretching was given. The review concludes as there is not much evidence on the basis of which the review can say if stretching on spasticity has its clinical benefit. A recent study by Gao et al. (2011) aims to investigate the changes occurring in biomechanical properties of the calf muscle–tendon unit after controlled ankle stretching in stroke survivors. Comparison was done between 10 stroke patients with ankle spasticity/contracture in one group and ten healthy subjects in the control group. 60 minute ankle stretching was given as an intervention to both the groups. Joint biomechanical properties like resistance torque, index of hysteresis and stiffness were evaluated pre- and post-intervention. Length of Achilles tendon was measured with ultrasonography. The force output of the triceps surae muscles was given in torque–angle relationship, by stimulating the calf muscles at a definite intensity across different ankle positions. The device used for intervention was an ankle stretching device with intelligent control (the velocity of stretching was inversely proportional to the joint resistance torque) was used. Pre test the stroke survivors showed significantly higher resistance torques and joint stiffness, which were to a large extent reduced after the stretching intervention, especially in dorsiflexion. Stretching also significantly improved the force production of the impaired calf muscles in stroke population under matched stimulations, along with the ankle ROM. The study interpreted that at the joint level, repeated stretching leads to increased passive ROM and decreased joint stiffness; at the muscle–tendon level, calf muscle force output improved. The study provided evidence of improvement in muscle tendon properties through stretching intervention. Apart from the small sample size the study was well written and the methodology was well described. DISCUSSION: Spasticity is a disabling and often painful condition that occur secondary to the UMN lesion that leads to hypertonicity, exaggerated reflexes, weakness of muscle and loss of dexterity. Spasticity has both neural and non neural components. Stretching is a very commonly used intervention used in clinical physiotherapy. But stretching and spasticity together is a very complicated concept. From the articles reviewed one can conclude that stretching does have a positive effect on spasticity, but its effect on the neural component of spasticity alone is yet not proved. In this study the stretching that has been described are mechanical stretches, but there are various other form of stretches given through splinting, plaster cast, weights which could not be discussed because of their low level of evidence. Many studies could not be included because there stretching was combined with strengthening, stimulation, passive motion etc. Even among the articles taken in this study there is heterog eneity in methodology of stretching, its duration, the type of stretch and even the outcome measures used. Inspite of being a component in the definition none of the articles investigated spasticity by using different velocities of displacement. Due to so much of diversity it is tough to comment on which mode of stretching is most beneficial for spasticity. To come down to a conclusion, future studies are needed to be done to find a standardised protocol of stretching for spasticity. In the future studies the outcome measure should be chosen carefully and intervention should be planed keeping the aim of the study in mind. CONCLUSION: The studies taken in this review shows a great diversity in respect to methodology, intervention, population and outcome measures. Though from the reviewed articles it can be said that stretching is effective for spasticity but there is need of good quality of studies to decide on a stretching protocol, its long term and short term effects and to come down to a conclusion as to which type of stretching is most effective in spasticity . TOTAL WORD COUNT IS 2978.

Internet2 Essay example -- Internet Computers Technology Essays

Internet2 Internet2 was formed in 1006 with an original 34 institutions participating. With Internet2, the Clinton Administration was trying to advance technologies for many people. Their first step was to connect 100 institutions at 100 times the speed of the current internet. The applications generated by this research have already had a positive affect on fields such as health care, national security, distance learning, energy research, environmental monitoring, and manufacturing. Internet2 is an extremely interesting subject. One very important fact to keep in mind throughout learning about Internet2 and its different goals and purposes is that Internet2 is not meant to replace the present day form of the Internet, but rather to improve tomarrow's form of the Internet. Internet2, today, has grown into a consortium, or agreement that is being carried out by a group of 206 universities all across the United States. These various universities are working as partners along with industry as well as the government in hopes to develop and eventually deploy more advanced network applications and technology. This newly created network applications, along with the technology, will help to better the forms of Internet that will be available in the future. What Internet2 is really doing is completely recreating the partnership between education, industry and the government, which is what brought the Internet to its current state. There are three primary goals that Internet2 is aiming to accomplish. The first goal is to create a leading edge network capability for the national research community. The second goal is to enable revolutionary Internet applications. The thrid goal of Internet2 is to ensure the ... ...ng that he or she has absolutely no past knowledge of. I not only learned what Internet2 is, but I learned a lot about the current Internet and how it actually functions. To me, the Internet has always just been out there. I log on, and then I have immediate access to pretty much anything I desire. Now that I know and understand what gives me that access and how I get it, I will never look at the Internet or World Wide Web the same way. Just as e-mail and the World Wide Web are legacies of earlier investments in academic, industry and federal research networks, the legacy of Internet2 will be to expand the possibilities of the broader Internet. I believe that within the next four to five years, the world will see and have access to the use of an entirely different and advanced Internet due to the developments made by Internet2 and its actively working members.

Stop Literary Censorship Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Stop Literary Censorship      Ã‚  Ã‚   Censorship is becoming more and more common all over the world today. The online Encarta Encyclopedia defines censorship as, "supervision and control of the information and ideas that are circulated among the people within a society. In modern times, censorship refers to the examination of books...for the purpose of altering or suppressing parts thought to be objectionable or offensive." Henry Reichman from the Education World website defines it as, "the removal, suppression, or restricted circulation of literary, artistic, or educational materials . . . on the grounds that these are morally or otherwise objectionable in light of the standards applied by the censor" (Cromwell). Definitions aside, great literature is being banned by many people for a number of reasons and shouldn't be.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The First Amendment to the Constitution states that: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances (Daniels 9-10). This means freedom. . .freedom for whatever reasons, but it's freedom. People are trying to take the freedom of choosing, choosing what books we each want to read, away.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Stephen Gottlieb states that, "censors tend to fall into three groups: 1) Parents who hear about or see material that troubles them; 2) Community members or parents who react to a book without having read it; and 3) Local, state, and national organizations, some of which have specific lists of titles which they consider objectionable." Encarta En... ...ry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2002. http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr031.shtml. Daniels, Walter M., ed. The Censorship of Books. New York: The H.W. Wilson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Company, 1954. Dunne, Diane. "Challenges are Widespread." Education World. 20 February 2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin157.shtml. ENCARTA Encyclopedia. 18 February   2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://encarta.msn.com/index/conciseindex/1F/01f74000.htm?z=1. Gottlieb, Stephen S. "The Right to Read: Censorship in the School Library." 10 February   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2002. http://www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec/ieo/digests/d53.html. Staples, Suzanne Fisher. "What Johnny Can't Read: Censorship in American Libraries."   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jersey City State College.   20 February 2002.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/winter96/pubCONN.html.

Holden Caufield from The Catcher In the Rye :: essays papers

Holden Caufield from The Catcher In the Rye A family can be classified as one of many things. It can be a group of people living under one roof; a group of people of common ancestry; or even a unit of a crime syndicate like the Mafia (Merriam Webster). But to Holden Caulfield, the main character of J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher In The Rye, his family was what we as a society normally think of when that word is spoken. There are always variations on a theme, but a typical family consists of two parents and at least one child. During the 1950’s when the novel is set, adoption was virtually unheard of and divorce could be considered a sin where as today these are common practices. But one thing about family that has prevailed through the decades is the family’s affect on a person’s existence. The way a person interacts with their family can affect them for the rest of their lives. And the way a family interacts with a specific person can affect that person for the rest of their life. It is a two way relationship which is often complicated and confusing, especially to Holden. Holden’s family is obviously very important to him. The novel opens with talking about his parents and his brother. Holden negatively criticizes them to hide the fact that he truly loves them. But, one would ask, how can you love those you never see? Holden is constantly being shipped from one boarding school to another. This absence between him and his parents intensifies his general alienation from everyone. Holden’s only real love in the family is for his sister Phoebe. The bond and respect between brother and sister can not be broken no matter how far the distance between them. When Holden arrives back in New York, he immediately wanted to call someone; his sister Phoebe. "She wouldn’t’ve cared if I’d woke her up†¦" (Salinger 59) Many people her age would not appreciate being woken up that late at night, especially by their brother, but there is a mutual respect between Phoebe and Holden that would allow for this event to occur. Throu gh out the whole novel, this relationship continues because she is his little sister and he would never hurt her. In today’s world, this type of relationship is next to impossible.

Finding Alternatives To Transportation Fuels Environmental Sciences Essay

There is a big planetary involvement in happening options to transit fuels to replace petroleum-based fuels. The possible for biofuels to run into the turning energy demands every bit good as contribute to a decrease in the nursery gas emanations chiefly in the transit sector. Increasing oil monetary values and the uncertainty about continued oil supplies have added more involvement in the thought of biofuels. Most treatment has focused on the advantages of ethyl alcohol and biodiesel production in the US and Europe in footings of: Justifying clime alteration, where biofuels substitute fossil fuels and their related nursery gas emanations. These benefits apply to the bulk of states but for developing states the production and usage of biofuels have extra possible benefits which are: Promotion of rural development by production a locally generated signifier of energy for processing and transit Making rural employment and wealth Decrease of deforestation and land debasement as biofuels besides substitute for the energy current derived from wood Multiple usage harvests can be reallocated for energy or nutrient demands depending on altering local demands and precedences In the current state of affairs were in biofuels are a large precedence policy in many different states. Towards of import issues such as nursery gas decrease, energy security, decrease of poorness and aid to keep sustainable progress biofuels shows good positiveness. However if they are non implemented in the right manner there could be more possible danger and injury than existent good. Were they could stop up doing nutrient deficits, environmental jobs every bit good as increased poorness. The inquiry is what is the best attack to take? 1st-generation biofuels such as sugar cane ethyl alcohol in Brazil, maize ethyl alcohol in US, oilseed colza bio-diesel in Germany, and palm oil bio-diesel in Malaysia are made utilizing consecutive frontward engineering. The basic provender stocks for the production of first coevals biofuels are frequently seeds or grains such as wheat, which yields amylum that is fermented into bio-ethanol, or sunflower seeds, which are pressed to give vegetable oil which can be used in bio-diesel. first-generation-biofuels Fig1 – 1st coevals biofuels Even though most analyses indicate that 1st coevals biofuels have a net benefit in footings of less nursery gas and energy balance they besides have several jobs. Current issues for many 1st coevals biofuels are that they: contribute to higher nutrient monetary values due to competition with nutrient harvests are an expensive option for energy security taking into history entire production costs excepting authorities grants make non run into their claimed environmental benefits because the biomass feedstock may non ever be produced sustainably are speed uping deforestation potentially have a negative impact on biodiversity compete for scarce H2O resources in some parts. Second coevals biofuels use waste biomass and agricultural residue such an illustration being maize chaffs this makes them a more practical solution ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . The usage of waste biomass and easy-to-grow feedstock ‘s has a lower environmental impact when compared to 1st coevals biofuel production ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . By utilizing specially designed micro-organisms, the feedstock ‘s tough cellulose is broken down into sugar and so fermented. Alternatively a thermo-chemical path can be taken whereby biomass is gasified and so liquefied in a procedure known as ‘biomass-to-liquid ‘ ( E.L. Kunkes, D.A. Simonetti 2008 ) . The 3rd coevals types of biofuels use improved feedstock instead so bettering the fuel devising procedure. Algae is a possible beginning which can bring forth about 30 times more energy per square metre compared to set down harvests ( Anon 2009 ) , harmonizing to ( G. Warwick 2009 ) the procedure in which to pull out the algal oil is non yet up to the best of ability. Fourth coevals type biofuels combine genetically optimized feedstock ‘s which are made in order to capture C with bugs in order to do the fuels ( J. Houghton, S. Weatherwax, J. Ferrel 2006 ) . To guarantee that 4th coevals biofuels are a C negative beginning of fuel the key is the gaining control of CO2 ( ARS National Program 2007 ) .The job on the other manus with this is the deficiency of equal C gaining control.Examples of biofuelsVegetable oil: Lower quality oil is normally used as fuel and comestible vegetable oil is non. Used vegetable oil is going more common in being used into bio-diesel. In order for vegetable oil to be used it must be heated to cut down its viscousness either by electric spirals or heat money changers for efficient combustion.Used_vegetable_cooking_oil Fig 2. Vegetable Oil Biodiesel: In Europe this is the most used biofuel type. By a procedure known as transesterification it is produced from oils or fats and is a liquid similar in composing to fossil/mineral Diesel. Oils are assorted with sodium hydrated oxide and methyl alcohol ( or ethyl alcohol ) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel fatty acid methyl ( or ethyl ) ester and glycerin. One portion glycerin is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. Biodiesel sample.JPG Fig. 3 biodiesel sample Bio intoxicants: Produced from intoxicants strictly where the most common being ethanol and least common being propanol and butyl alcohols are produced by micro beings and enzymes through the agitation of sugars or starches which is the simplest method or by cellulose which is more complicated. Bioethers: Bio quintessences are cost-efficient compounds that act as octane evaluation foils. They besides enhance engine public presentation whilst cut downing engine wear and toxic exhaust emanations. Reducing the sum of ground-level ozone, they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe. Biogas: Biogas is produced by the procedure of anaerobiotic digestion of organic stuff by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste stuffs or by the usage of energy harvests fed into anaerobiotic digesters to supplement gas outputs. The solid by merchandise known as digestate can be used as a biofuel or a fertiliser. Landfill gas is a less clean signifier of biogas which is produced in landfills through of course happening anaerobiotic digestion. If it escapes into the ambiance it is a potent nursery gas. Biogas_pipes Fig. 4 biogas pipes Syngas: Syngas is a mixture of C monoxide and H is produced by partial burning of biomass, that is, burning with an sum of O that is non sufficient to change over the biomass wholly to carbon dioxide and H2O. Solid biofuels: Examples include wood, sawdust, grass film editings, domestic garbage, wood coal, agricultural waste, non-food energy harvests, and dried manure. ( Biofuel. 2009 ) . When natural biomass is already in a suited signifier such as firewood it can fire in a range or furnace straight to supply heat or raise steam. When natural biomass is in an inconvenient signifier such as sawdust, wood french friess, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues the typical procedure is to densify the biomass. This procedure includes crunching the natural biomass to an appropriate particulate size known as pig fuel which depending on the compaction type can be from 1 to 3A centimeter which is so concentrated into a fuel merchandise.Environmental ImpactsBiofuels being produced may do a figure of environmental jobs such as: Land usage alterations Expansion in agribusiness Changes in agricultural patterns Transportation system of the biomass used to do biofuels Conversion of the biomass into fuels After fuels are made disposal of the staying waste stuffs Over the past few old ages several surveies have shown environmental issues Current analysis shows a great scope of environmental jobs and benefits that vary greatly depending on several factors such as: the type of biofuel the biomass feedstocks and the cultivation methods used the engineering used to change over the biomass into fuel the type of energy used to power the transition the location where feedstocks and biofuels are produced the extent to which a turning demand for biofuels induces alterations in land usage and land screen In the antediluvian times the usage of wood and wood coal were common and liquid biofuels were indispensable in the development of cars and burning engines this shows biofuels are non new. Biofuels chiefly played a portion in poorer states whereas fossil fuels were the chief beginning of energy. Recent involvement has largely been in biofuels of liquid signifier as these can easy replace fuels used for transit without major alterations needed. The difference in monetary value between liquid fuels and solid fuels is extremely wedged due to the convenience of liquid fuels ( FAO 2008b ) . Graph 1 below shows the difference in cost for coal which is a solid and rough oil a liquid over the clip of 50 old ages by looking at the graph we can clearly see the difference in monetary value turning dramatically making 2007 oil costs 12 times more than coal for tantamount energy. oil V coal monetary value Graph 1 – US crude oil & A ; coal monetary valuesFood Vs FuelFor the production of ethyl alcohol sugar cane which largely comes from Brazil and maize which comes largely from the US are used. For biodiesels rapeseed, canola oil, soya bean and oil thenars are used. Since these harvests are besides used for nutrient shows us clearly that there is direct competition between nutrient and biofuel for harvest production this competition is already doing major strain on planetary nutrient supplies. Harmonizing to ( FAO 2008a ) is was recorded in 2007 that merely 5 % of the planetary production of cereals rice, wheat, maize was used in the production of biofuels and the bulk of it was used for direct ingestion for worlds or for carnal provenders. However cereal usage for biofuels is increasing at a much higher rate than that of nutrient usage. Besides it is recorded that from 2006 to 2007 there has been an addition of 37 % usage of maize in the US to do ethyl alcohol ( FAO 2008a ) . From 2006 Brazilian sugar cane covered an country of 7 million hectares half of this country was used for ethanol production and the other half for sugar production. In 2007 the production of sugarcane country was about 10 % of the sum. Most of the enlargement was on grazing land 65 % , 17 % on soya bean and 5 % on maize and orange. Since carnal denseness in Brazil is really low it seems that the loss of about 0.5 million hectares of grazing lands in Brazil is non impacting the meat production. A little addition in carnal denseness can therefore balance out the losingss of grazing land. But so far from what it seems sugarcane spread outing in Brazil is non doing any excess force per unit area on the nutrient monetary values in the state ( Goldemberg J. , S. T 2008 ) . A major job in Brazil is the supplanting of soya bean from Central Brazil by sugar cane in the way of the Amazon part which adds force per unit area of deforestation in the country ( Martinelli, L. A 2007 ) . The potency for competition between biofuels and nutrient production will construct up as biofuel production additions. Even if non-food harvests are used as the feedstock for the biofuels the possibility for competition with nutrient production still exists if the biofuel harvests are grown on land capable for nutrient production ( Searchinger 2008 ) .Emissions of Greenhouse gasThe most recent analyses show a positive benefit on the net nursery gas emanations for the usage of liquid biofuels where there are little differences for corn-ethanol to a significant greater difference for production of ethyl alcohol from sugar cane or biodiesel from palm oil ( Gallagher, E. 2008 ) . Corn used to bring forth ethyl alcohol can hold both a net positive and negative consequence of over 30 % when compared to fossil fuels in conformity to chart below corn-ethanol scope from 12 % to 20 % for the mean net nursery gas nest eggs which is taken from recent analyses ( Searchinger 2008 ) . Most analyses have concentrated on how biofuels have effected nursery gas emanations by concentrating on how much part CO2 plays. Even though CO2 is a major cause of planetary heating there are besides other gases which play a major portion such as azotic oxide ( N20 ) and methane ( CH4 ) . Harmonizing to ( Prather et al. 2001 ) azotic oxide can be up to 300 times greater in its ability to warm the planet than CO2 for an tantamount mass over a 100 twelvemonth mean period. net economy in nursery gas emanations Graph 2 – Net nest eggs in nursery gas emanations in comparing to fossil fuels In dirts, deposits and H2O azotic oxide is created accidentally as a side consequence of bacterial processing of N. The increased usage of N fertiliser is the chief ground of the planetary addition in N2O fluxes where merely some of this moves straight from agricultural Fieldss to the ambiance. Most the flux occurs in downstream aquatic ecosystems which get the N pollution chiefly from carnal waste every bit good as agricultural Fieldss. Overall, about 4 % of the N that human activity introduces into the environment ends up as N2O in the ambiance. Biofuel production is clearly lending to the planetary N2O flux given that biofuel harvests often are greatly fertilized with man-made N fertiliser, largely in industrial states. An of import idea for most analyses of net nursery gas emanations from biofuels is that they merely consider the current degree of production and do non undertake the impacts of land usage alteration that can be an add-on to the spread outing usage of biofuels. In the United States when more land is used for turning harvests for biofuels feedbacks through the planetary economic system can be given to ensue in land transitions which even include tropical deforestation in other states. These alterations in land can hold really harmful jobs on nursery gas emanations and demands to be included in the net nursery balance of the biofuels. For maize ethanol the emanation of nursery gas is doubled compared to firing fossil fuels because of indirect land ( Searchinger 2008 ) . To utilize liquid biofuels for transit might non be the best of thoughts in order to increase energy security or to cut down nursery gas emanations whereas a more efficient usage may be in stationary installations to bring forth electricity or heat. The critical issues for both Greenhouse gas emanations and nutrient production are which land types will be converted to biofuel harvests and the harvests that will be grown. If biofuel production is targeted towards lands earlier converted to agriculture but non presently being used for harvest production such as abandoned farmland the Greenhouse gas and biodiversity effects will be much more positive than if biofuel production causes the direct or indirect transition of natural ecosystems ( Campbell 2008 ) . Harmonizing to the current rating if biofuels are produced in ways that cut down transition of home ground e.g. by using waste merchandises, well increasing outputs, and aiming ruined grazing land and discarded cropland, biofuels could play a positive function in extenuating clime alteration, heightening environmental quality, and beef uping the planetary economic system.Biofuels and WaterCrops and biomass for nutrient or energy need big sums of H2O ( Molden 2007a ) . Water demand at the current clip for harvests is modest but easy this can lift as energy monetary values lift due to increased biofuel production due to concerns over the impacts of nursery gas emanations. This leads to more competition between nutrient and biofuel for land and H2O this will use more force per unit area particularly in H2O scarce countries. There are plenty land and H2O resources to feed the universe but if today ‘s environmental and nutrient tendencies carry on this will take to H2O crisis in many parts of the universe every bit good as many possible H2O jobs unless sufficient policy steps are implemented harmonizing to a recent appraisal on H2O direction in agribusiness ( CA 2007 ) . The H2O demands of energy derived from biomass are about 70 to 400 times more than that of other energy bearers such as fossil fuels, air current, and solar. More than 90 % of the H2O needed is used in the production of the feedstock ( Gerben Leenes 2008 ) .Effectss on aquatic ecosystemsStream flow decrease and ordinance: Reduced watercourse flow and in utmost instances dried up rivers are cause due to H2O backdowns from rivers, lakes and groundwater for irrigation. Some lakes are shriveling because of over extraction upstream illustrations being Aral Sea and Lake Chad ( Falkenmark 2007 ) . Wetland debasement: Wetlands give of import adaptable ecosystem services for H2O resources such as saving of inundation and deposits, groundwater recharge, base flow ordinance, natural filter, biodiversity. Water ordinance and drainage for agricultural intents may be two of the prima causes for loss in wetland countries ( Finlayson and D'Cruz 2005 ) . Water quality: Direct impacts come from fertiliser, pesticide and weedkiller application. Nutrient pollution has of import impacts on the quality of groundwater and river H2O and may ensue in eutrophication of wetlands. Other water-quality jobs relate to the sewerage produced in the production of biofuels. Changes in H2O tabular arraies: Over pumping of groundwater resources taking to groundwater diminution and endangering the sustainability of the resources occurs in India, China, Mexico, western USA and Pakistan, among others ( Shah 2007 ) . Rising groundwater degrees is a major job in with dirt salinization in Australia and other countries. Salts have moved into the surface soils so that big piece of lands of land have become less suited or even unserviceable for agribusiness ( Anderies 2005 ) . Where groundwater is fresh over pumping leads to groundwater diminution but where groundwater is saline and unserviceable for agribusiness, ooze from irrigation leads to a rise in the ground-water tabular array, salinization, and stagnating H2O, therefore rendering land unserviceable for agribusiness. Changes in overflow due to set down usage alterations: The consequence of transition of woods into croplands is really site-specific depending on incline, dirt, rainfall strength and land screen. Little is identified of the possible hydrological impacts of large-scale transition of waste land into jatropha plantations in India, which will increase harvest transpiration, infiltration and shadowing but will diminish dirt vaporization ( Calder 1999 ) . Moisture recycling: Changes in land usage can easy change evapotranspiration rates e.g. from large-scale deforestation and therefore these alterations can change local clime ( Falkenmark 2007 ) .Possible tracts to cut down inauspicious environmental effectsImproved H2O productiveness and better H2O direction aimed at providing a assortment of ecosystems every bit good as less usage of H2O intensive feedstock ‘s can cut down some effects of biofuel systems on H2O resources. These methods are explained in more item below. Less H2O demanding harvests: Sugarcane and maize need a batch of H2O. In the chief sugar cane countries in Brazil, where rainfall is abundant this is non an issue, but in countries with insufficient or undependable rainfall they need big measures of irrigation H2O. Scientist are making experiments with less demanding harvests such as Jatropha in India which can be grown on dry conditions. Increasing H2O productiveness: There is thought into bettering H2O productiveness by cut downing the sum of H2O needed for harvest production and go forthing more H2O for other utilizations such as the environment ( Molden 2007a ) . Such H2O direction patterns include H2O harvest home, auxiliary irrigation, preciseness irrigation, and dirt H2O preservation patterns. Factors outside H2O include betterments in dirt birthrate, control of plagues and diseases, subsidies and better markets. Reuse and recycling of H2O may already be high and sensed losingss and inefficiencies lower than by and large assumed ( Seckler 1998 ) . Pull offing H2O for multi functionality: Many of the H2O jobs come from large-scale monocultures managed for one ecosystem service either agricultural or biomass production. Increased outputs can travel manus in manus with decreased environmental impacts through increased H2O efficiency, improved H2O quality and increased C segregation ( Pretty 2006 ) . Biofuel can give both benefits and jobs to the H2O sector where it largely depends on the pick of feedstock, location of production, current productiveness, predominating agricultural patterns and the manner H2O is managed. With appropriate steps in H2O direction taking topographic point this could greatly cut down the environmental impacts and assist reconstruct debauched ecosystems. This will depend on how successful these alterations in agricultural direction patterns are brought. Multiple attacks to happening originative solutions are needed to guarantee sustainable production of biofuels.Crops for BiofuelEnergy is needed for every life being on our planet it is required for growing, reproduction, care and motive power this energy is provided by workss. The same energy is originated from the Sun which flows from workss through a web of consumers and decomposers and bit by bit returns the bearer molecule CO2 to the ambiance. Another illustration which is more sudden is fires happening of course from buoy uping work stoppages or by the activity of adult male which is chemically similar to the release of solar energy accumulated by workss. Humans every bit good as some other animate beings use workss f or building but worlds have combusted biomass under certain conditions to provide heat for heat and cookery in both stationary and grip. Due to concerns about the expected exhaustion of oil, energy security and high energy monetary values every bit good as planetary warming the hunt for alternate beginnings of energy is due. Chief focal point is to seek energy for transit of liquid signifier which consumes 50 % of entire usage of crude oil. When the first major crude oil monetary value rise occurred in the 1970 ‘s there was a batch of involvement and analysis of energetic efficiency of agribusiness in general where Diesel engines were ab initio designed to run on vegetable oil. The usage of biofuels did non nevertheless continue to increase because the monetary value of crude oil fell every bit good as the force per unit area to besides develop alternate beginnings. The current state of affairs we are in is nevertheless more complex and this is because crude oil monetary values are lifting because the demand exceeds the production. About all renewable liquid conveyance fuel comes from biodiesel and bio ethyl alcohol from a little assortment of harvests. Fuels such as man-made gasolene and Diesel which are besides liquid fuels play minor functions. However biogas, H and electricity which are non liquid conveyance fuels are besides produced from biomass. Bio ethyl alcohol is produced by agitation of glucose and fruit sugar which are merely obtained from sucrose harvests such as sugar cane or sugar Beta vulgaris. Glucose and fructose can every bit good be formed by hydrolysis of starches from grains, tuber harvests e.g. murphy and manioc. Agitation is followed by distillment and desiccation both energy demanding stairss to bring forth fuel class intoxicant. Burning biomass residues or byproducts as usually done in sugar cane refineries can supply some of the energy necessary in treating. Fermentation produces organic co-products that find usage as carnal nutrient. Biodiesel is formed chemically by trans-esterification of vegetable oils obtained by physical and or chemical separation from oilseed harvests. The procedure reduces long branched molecules less appropriate as fuel to short straight-chained fatty acid methyl esters of lower viscousness and higher cetane figure which are more easy combustible. Trans -esterification utilizations methanol or ethanol and produces glycerol as a coproduct.Future options and possible for enlargementTo increase biofuel production ideally harvest country and or harvest outputs will hold to increase by utilizing harvest residues and dedicated energy harvests every bit good as using more efficient extraction and transition methods. At a planetary degree enlargement of biofuel production must be achieved in the context of 50 % addition in nutrient production by 2030 which explains current concern with moral, nutrient security, agronomic, and ecological issues associated with biofuel production ( Thompson 2008 ) . Greater harvest country but largely greater harvest outputs: Table 1 below shows portion of the entire land country and the entire land country which is non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality ( FAO-AGL 2003 ) . It shows that merely a little sum of land does non see terrible limitation for rain Federal cropping. This analysis does non widen to the productiveness of land with rough bounds. These land usage transitions force of import ecosystem services and openly vie with the lands other possible values. Due to this a sustainable addition must come from better productiveness of bing land. This is possible by site specific combinations of better production methods, better cultivars and in most instances more inputs of fertiliser and irrigation. universe distribution of area.JPG Table 1. Land country non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality In recent decennaries harvest productiveness has improved by turning possible outputs every bit good as decreases in the output spread by better timelier operations, more fertilisers, better weed and insect and pest control. Breeding of workss has improved altered cultivars, opposition to disease and late with biotech methods opposition to insects and better weed control through weedkiller opposition. If to increase planetary nutrient production will do a terrible bound on land accessible for conventional feedstock production where at the same clip could duplicate the measure of residues available for transition to biofuel. Extra additions in nutrient supply can besides allow irregular parts from grain excess. Handiness of biomass is highly site specific because residues from harvests and woods are non ‘wastes left to decompose ‘ but fodder for farm animate beings every bit good as a web of consumers and decomposers that play a chief portion in the care of dirt birthrate. Residues besides protect dirts from eroding and continue the physical construction of dirt therefore playing a important portion in minimising taint of surface Waterss. Gross remotion is non possible without impact. Crops of the maximal output will lend most. Low giving up harvests which are grown over broad countries in semi waterless zones are more likely to lend really small because the stubble produced is needed to protect dirt and supply fodder for graze animate beings. States that want to see residues and waste biomass as options need regional stock lists of resources that can place countries of exposure to removal, degree of biomass and cost of transit. For biofuel production it is difficult to gauge how much residues would lend in footings of competition and handiness from other energy extraction ironss. Biomass 10 % of the entire universe energy usage is biomass which the following most of import energy beginning after dodo fuel which contributes to 80 % ( FAO 2008a ) . The usage of nutrient harvest to do biofuels will go on to be a job as the universe struggles to increase nutrient production to better feed a turning population that at present includes about 1 billion who are badly ill-fed. Particular energy harvests are non an efficient manner to avoid competition with nutrient production because they besides need land, H2O, foods and other inputs and hence compete with nutrient production. There is no grounds that non-food harvests can be grown good for energy production on land that could non besides grow harvests for nutrient. Important beginnings of biofuel are residues from agribusiness and forestry. Procedures through which this biomaterial will be transformed into fuel are non yet recognized. Similarly the sum of residues that could be sustainably utilised is unknown in most instances. Deciding this issue of handiness of residues is a merely as of import research activity as the development of transmutation tracts. Evidence suggests biofuels can do a modest ( 10 % ) part to national transit fuel supply in states with big cropland resources relative to population size. However, few states will be important exporters of biofuels. Clearly, biofuels can non be a major beginning of transit fuel in a extremely populated and energy demanding universe.Biomass Conversion to Fuels and Electric PowerUsing thermic and biological procedures biomass can be converted into a assortment of solid, gaseous and liquid fuels. The option of procedure and merchandise depends upon the nature of the biomass feedstock and the market where it will be sold. Biomass and wood coal are solid bio energy merchandises. Gaseous bio-energy merchandises can be formed by anaerobiotic digestion ( biogas ) , thermic or supercritical gasification ( manufacturer gas, or syngas ) , or by upgrading of the primary merchandises of anaerobiotic digestion or gasification ( H and methane ) . Liquid bio energy merchandises are derived from physically, chemically or thermally processing biomass: saccharides, syngas, triglycerides and bio oil/biocrude. Liquid fuel production from saccharides chiefly focuses on ethyl alcohol even though butyl alcohol, furans, isoprenes, butyl alcohol and methane seriess is besides possible to be used. Production from triglycerides on the other manus chiefly focuses on methyl esters ( biodiesel ) . Liquid fuels from bio oil and biocrude include a scope of hydrocarbons suited as gasolene, Diesel fuel or even air power fuel. Besides biomass is able to be converted to electricity which so can supply energy for transit. Electrical propulsion as an option to biofuels for transit is possible although this thought is waiting for the battery engineering cost to cut down. In the bulk of markets fuel costs for electric battery powered vehicles are predicted to be a little per centum of that for sparkignition engines powered by gasolene ( Idaho National Laboratory 2005 ) . Graph 3 below compares the intercrossed electric vehicles ( HEV ) , internal burning engine ( ICE ) vehicles and battery powered vehicles charged by traditional electric grids based on coal fired steam power workss are comparable to gasoline fired in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Conversely electricity from natural gas fired combined rhythm power workss makes battery powered vehicles one of the most attractive vehicle platforms in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Through Rankine rhythms, Brayton cycles, of fuel cells biomass can be used as an energy beginning to bring forth electricity power. comparing of vehicles Graph 3. Well-to-Wheel Efficiency and Environmental Impact of Vehicle Technologies. These rhythms are given in more item below: The Ranking Cycle – This involves the direct burning of fuel to raise pressurized steam that is expanded through turbine to bring forth electricity ( Singer 1991 ) . Steam power workss contribute most of the electric power coevals capacity in the universe. Rankine rhythm offer the advantage because it has the ability to straight fire coal and other cheap solid fuels. The Brayton Cycle – This produces electric power by spread outing hot gas through a turbine ( Poullikkas 2005 ) . Open firing biomass straight to bring forth the hot gas watercourse has been found to be impractical since caustic compounds carried with the gas watercourse harm the gas turbine. Gasification or fast pyrolysis of biomass to bring forth syngas or bio oil that can be cleaned before firing in the gas turbine is a more capable option. Because of the easiness of works building, potency for high thermodynamic efficiencies when employed in advanced rhythms and cost effectivity in a broad scope of sizes ( from 10s of kW to 100s of megawatts ) makes the Brayton rhythm one of the best engineerings for bio energy. Fuel Cells – These straight convert chemical energy into work hence short-circuiting Carnot bounds for heat engines ( Dicks and Larminie 2000 ) . This does non intend that fuel cells can change over 100 % of the chemical heat content of fuel into work. In pattern the fuel cell transition efficiencies is 35 – 60 % depending upon the fuel cell design. Therefore fuel cells can bring forth significantly more work from a given sum of fuel than can heat engines. However carbonous fuels must foremost be converted to hydrogen before they are suited for usage in fuel cells. When finding the overall fuel to electricity transition efficiency of a fuel cell energy losingss associated have to besides be considered. At comparatively low temperatures 65 A °C proton exchange membrane ( PEM ) fuel cells operate which is suited for automotive applications, job with bring forthing H is the high costs which have limited its commercial application. Most favoured are high temperature fuel cells for stationary power coevals because of chances for heat recovery. Combined rhythm power systems know that waste heat from one power rhythm can be used to coerce a 2nd power rhythm and were developed to better energy transition efficiency ( Williams and Larson 1993 ) . If a individual heat engine could be built to map between the temperature extremes of firing fuel and the ambient environment this would do combined rhythms be pointless. However temperature and force per unit area boundaries on stuffs of building have disallowed this acknowledgment. Combined rhythms use a top-flight rhythm runing at high temperatures and a bottoming rhythm runing on the rejected heat from the exceeding rhythm. Most normally combined rhythm power workss employ a gas turbine for the top-flight rhythm and a steam turbine for the bottoming rhythm accomplishing overall efficiencies of 50 % or more. Power workss based on high temperature fuel cells are on occasion incorporated with both a gas turbine exceeding rhythm and a steam turbine underside cycling to better efficien cy even more.The Car and Fuel of the FutureA figure of alternate vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to ease the menaces of clime alteration, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependance caused by motor vehicles. Approximately 97 % of all energy consumed by our autos, sport public-service corporation vehicles, new waves, trucks, and aeroplanes is still petroleum-based.Alternate Fuel VehiclesAlternate fuel vehicles ( AFVs ) and their fuels encounter two critical jobs. In general they suffer several market place disadvantages compared to conventional vehicles running on conventional fuels. For this ground in order to win they require authorities inducements. Besides they do non supply typically cost effectual solutions to major energy and environmental jobs which undermines the authorities to step in and assist them. Other than the thought of cost effectual decreases at that place have historically been six major barriers to AFV success: 1. High first cost for vehicle 2. On-board fuel storage issues ( i.e. limited scope ) 3. Safety and liability concerns 4. High fuelling cost ( compared to gasoline ) 5. Limited fuel Stationss 6. Improvements in the competition ( better, cleaner gasolene vehicles ) . All AFVs face the increasing †competition † from improved gasoline-power vehicles.HydrogenIt is really dubious that H vehicles will derive a batch of market incursion. A figure of major engineering discoveries and authorities inducements will be needed for them to be successful. US director of Toyotas advanced engineerings group Bill Reinert said in January 2005 that without multiple discovery we wont see many gross revenues of fuel cell vehicles until at least 2030 ( Truett, 2005 ) . Reinert was asked when fuel cell autos would replace gasolene powered autos where he replied †If I told you ‘never, ‘ would you be upset? † ( Butters 2005 ) . If projected major progresss in cost decrease and public presentation for H engineerings similar progresss should be made for loanblends, batteries and biofuels every bit good. It is really likely we will ne'er see a lasting, low-cost fuel cell vehicle with an efficiency, scope and one-year fuel measure that match even the best current intercrossed vehicle. Out of all AFVs and alternate fuels, fuel cell vehicles running on H are likely the least likely to be a cost effectual solution to planetary heating which is why other thoughts should hold equal policy attending and support.E-HybridsThe stopper in loanblend besides called the e-hybrid which has well lower nursery gas emanations, a much lower one-year fuel measure, a much longer scope than current autos where you can besides fuel at place and fewer substructure jobs than traditional AFVs. Vehicle usage is largely for short trips such as transposing which means for a long period the auto wo n't be in usage where in this period the vehicle can be charged. Typical scope for these autos last around 20-40 stat mis. If the electricity were from CO2 free beginnings so these vehicles would besides hold clear reduced net nursery gas emanations. Since these vehicles besides have gasoline engine means they have many advantages compared to pure electric vehicles. One of import factor is that they are non limited in scope by the entire sum of battery charge. If the battery charge is completing the auto can run on gasolene and be charged when possible. E-hybrids avoid many of the barriers these are: They do non hold a hapless scope. There are no major safety and liability issues but great attention would hold to be taken in the design of any place based system that is used for bear downing. Fueling cost is cheaper when compared to gasoline where it costs about a 3rd of the monetary value per stat mi.